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exercises and solutions in linear algebra

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Okay, let's dive into exercises and solutions in Linear Algebra, with code examples primarily using Python's NumPy library. This will be a comprehensive guide covering foundational concepts, common problem types, and how to solve them programmatically.

**I. Core Concepts and Review**

Before we jump into exercises, let's solidify the key building blocks:

* **Vectors:** Ordered lists of numbers. Geometrically, they represent a magnitude and direction. Notation: `v = (v1, v2, ..., vn)`
* **Matrices:** Rectangular arrays of numbers. Notation: `A = [a_ij]`, where `i` represents the row and `j` represents the column.
* **Matrix Operations:** Addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, matrix multiplication (crucial!). Remember matrix multiplication `(AB)` is only defined if the number of columns in `A` equals the number of rows in `B`.
* **Transpose:** Swapping rows and columns. `A^T`.
* **Dot Product (Inner Product):** `u . v = u1*v1 + u2*v2 + ... + un*vn`. Related to the angle between vectors.
* **Linear Independence:** A set of vectors is linearly independent if no vector in the set can be written as a linear combination of the others.
* **Span:** The set of all linear combinations of a set of vectors.
* **Basis:** A linearly independent set of vectors that spans a vector space.
* **Linear Transformations:** Functions that map vectors to vectors while preserving vector addition and scalar multiplication. Represented by matrices.
* **Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors:** For a square matrix `A`, an eigenvector `v` satisfies `Av = λv`, where `λ` is the eigenvalue. Eigenvectors don't change direction when the transformation `A` is applied (only scaled).
* **Determinant:** A scalar value associated with a square matrix. Indicates whether the matrix is invertible.
* **Inverse Matrix:** `A⁻¹` such that `AA⁻¹ = A⁻¹A = I` (where `I` is the identity matrix). A matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is non-zero.
* **Rank:** The number ...

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